Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning: An International Handbook: Ch. 1 - Mobile Digital Games as an Educational Tool in K-12 Schools

As an elementary school teacher in the 21st century there is a significant amount of pressure from parents, administration, and even students to not just implement, but to integrate technology into the curriculum. In fact, as a teacher in a Utah school district part of my yearly performance assessment was to prove how my students were "effectively" using education. I was teaching in a school that had a 1:1 student to Chromebook ratio and it was expected for students to reach various benchmarks regarding the use of technology; even the end of year state-mandated exams were given via computer starting in grade 3. 

Image from https://www.getnclass.com/3-surprising-ways-to-keep-students-focused-using-technology/

While using the computers regularly, even daily, in class never lost its luster, tedious practices such as typing exercises certainly did. I learned quickly that finding a fun alternative for math, literacy, and even typing going to be key in keeping students engaged in learning. For this reason, I chose to read the chapter titled "Mobile Digital Games as an Educational Tool in K-12 Schools" from the book Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning: An International Handbook to blog about this week.

Right out the gate the authors of this chapter state the importance of teachers who can adapt and adjust their pedagogies to accommodate new technologies. They also don't waste time stating the benefits of using games in the classroom by saying that "[a]ccording to Deubel's study (2006), mobile digital game-based learning (a) provides deep engagement, (b) offers motivation for persistence in learning, (c) enables customized learning experiences, and (d) promotes long-term and working memories" (Crompton et al. 2018). As an educator I can personally attest to each of these benefits. Whether my students were practicing literacy skills on Lexia, practicing math skills with Freckle, practicing their keyboarding while racing against friends on NitroType, or learning to code with code.org, my students were highly engaged and highly motivated; as a teacher I loved that many of the games my students could access at school (whether assigned or free-choice) offered differentiation--every student could work on his/her own level and master skills they most needed; which is argued in the chapter as one of the greatest benefits of digital games in learning.

On Freckle students work on their own levels to earn coins they can then spend in the "store" to buy items for their pet mascots. Time spent in the "store" was limited to 2 minutes, allowing for a time to reward their work by redeeming earned coins, but not allowing a waste of learning time. Students can work on math, reading comprehension, social studies, and science. (image from freckle.com)

 

The chapter also advocates the development of "critical twenty-first century skills that are imperative for real-world success" (Crompton et al. 2018). I noticed at the beginning of the year students struggled with more than just keyboarding, but with critical computer skills such as double-clicking, drag-and-drop, highlighting text, and scrolling, among others. Many games provide a friendly, engaging format for students to practice these skills, which were needed for my students to take their end of year state exam, in a low pressure way.

Benefits of digital games aside, the chapter also recognizes key features of successful educational games which include taking into account the age, gender, competitiveness, etc. of players, any special needs, the role of the teacher; as well as clear rules, choice and chance elements, goals, immediate feedback, and evaluation to name a few (Crompton et al. 2018). It is up to the teacher to choose which games will be used how, meaning to meet which learning goals specifically. One suggestion I liked that was given was to have the students revisit and reflect on what they have learned by using various games, and the authors put forward the cruciality of student reflection as it allows them to fully engage. 

Regarding students' cognitive development the chapter indicates that mobile digital games will enhance learners' memory capacities (short-term, long-term, and working) as well as logical reasoning. This is because players are required to memorize rules, functions, sequences and more to complete tasks in the games they engage. In addition, digital gaming is much faster paced than "regular play", requiring students to work and react quickly, strategize, and think ahead. 

As a student, teacher, and in my personal life I have learned to use collaborative documents via technology such as GoogleSlides or Google Docs. Crompton et al. have not left the benefits to students' collaborative skill enhancement out of their persuasive defense of digital games. In fact, they state, "The nature of digital games includes (a) the opportunity to act out a role, (b) being a member of a group, and (c) making decisions within predominant values and attitudes in a society; digital games can enhance learners' social skill development." 

Image from https://www.beloitdailynews.com/front_page_slider/20171122/collaboration_helps_kids_learn_new_skills

 In case you are worried you can't find a way to integrate games into your curriculum, the chapter goes on to break down mobile digital games in specific subject areas such as science, history, math, art, and literature and language. In the end the authors instruct educators that to be successful in utilizing games, there still needs to be a connection to the lesson objective, but the argument is well laid out prior to the conclusion: mobile digital games are absolutely beneficial and worth the use in any educational situation.

References

Crompton, H., Lin, Y., Burke, D., and Block, A. (2018). Mobile digital games as an educational tool in K-12 schools. In: S. Yu, M. Ally, and A. Tsinakos, eds. Mobile and ubiquitous learning: An international handbook. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore Pte. Ltd. pp. 3-18.

How Do You Learn?

Online. Offline. Behaviorism. Cognitivism. Just a few trigger words when discussing how individuals learn. The purpose of this essay is to take a reflective and introspective look at how I have learned, currently learn, and hopefully, will learn taking into account my Personal Learning Network (PLN) and different learning theories.

One of the first activities I took part in beginning my graduate studies was to create a Personal Learning Network; a web connecting me to all the different mediums of learning. Upon reflection of my PLN, I found, as did all of my classmates, that there was a divide in our networks which we classified as online and offline learning. Quoting Richardson and Mancabelli online, the University of Southampton states:

In our PLNs, we learn what we want to learn using the vast resources and people online (or off) that can help us learn it. Each of our networks is unique, created and developed to our personalised learning goals that evolve and grow throughout our lives. (2017)

Classified as a ‘millennial’, it came as no surprise that my own PLN was made up of a majority of online resources; Google, Siri, TedTalks, BBC News, Netflix, YouTube, Facebook, to name just a few. In fact, I didn’t realize just how internet-dependent I had become and I had to question whether that was a “lesser way” of learning. Did it count as learning if I wasn’t memorizing or remembering facts I was exposing myself to? Even skills that I learned offline have become relevant online, such as reading articles online for classes rather than out of a physical book. However, in a world where access to information is so available, I’ve decided that learning to find information is just as valuable as knowing the information from memory.

            In terms of offline resources my PLN contained three main types: physical print (books, newspapers, magazines, etc.), people, and experiences. I started creating my PLN by asking myself who I turn to for help—professors, friends, parents, siblings, coaches, all came to mind. Additionally, I have always enjoyed reading and even now prefer holding a book in my hand to reading on my phone or computer. When reviewing my PLN for class I wrote:

…life experiences shape our learning and should be, in my opinion, heavily included in our PLNs. My life wouldn't be the same if I hadn't lived and taught in Mexico, where I experienced a huge learning curve in terms of language and culture. Work experience shapes our knowledge as well…” (Tolbert 2019a).

While so much of my PLN is an online resource, I think I still find my offline resources more valuable to my life and learning.

Reviewing past learning theories has helped me in identifying how I learned as a child. On my blog Ed Thoughts, I shared an image that put the four main learning theories (behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism) on a timeline (Tolbert 2019b). Although Behaviorism was taken over by Cognitivism in the early 20^th century and both peaked in popularity before I was born, aspects of my education carry qualities of both learning theories. For example in a presentation on these learning theories given by Professor James Stanfield a table showed the type of learning to best describe Behaviorism was task-based learning (2019, slide 19) which was very apparent in my elementary school years. However, at the age of ten I was selected to take part in a “Gifted and Talented” program in my school district which was meant to provide challenge and “new style” learning to high achieving students. This “new style” was very cognitivist in its approach, focusing on reasoning and problem solving (Stanfield 2019, slide 19). “According to Piaget (1958), …problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered” which is why Piaget suggested learning required an active participant. He argued that children learn in developmental stages and that they “should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development” (McLeod 2018). I often wonder if the characteristics of these early learning theories being evident in my education originated from the age of my teachers, the fact I was living in a small, rural town, or my own development at the time. Regardless, in many ways this gave me an advantage to learning in middle- and high-school where more responsibility of learning fell to the students to think critically and problem solve. This shift in learning styles continued as I went through high school and entered university for the first time.

It was while pursuing my teaching degree that I really experienced learning as a social construct, a main quality of the Constructivist learning theory; however, by this point I was also learning largely using online resources, relying less and less on teachers and professors imparting their knowledge, a quality of Connectivism. Looking back at my PLN I’ve decided that I don’t want to lose the importance of reading printed books and that I do want to try to expand my PLN by learning new skills/hobbies, reading blogs related to my interests written by people with experience in their specific field/craft, and stay open to experiences. The notion of digital literacy, social networking, and learning from experience really shaped how I learn now as an adult, and how I my own role as a teacher was informed and influenced. I anticipate my learning in the future will follow this pattern as I am in deep agreement with the idea that “people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences” (Stanfield 2019b), but I cannot deny the importance of connecting oneself to networks both on and offline.

Word count: 948

References

Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J., 1958. The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures (Vol. 22). Psychology Press.

McLeod, S. (2018). Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development [online]. SimplyPsychology. [Viewed 27 October 2019]. Available from: https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

           
Richardson, W. and Mancabelli, R., 2011. Personal learning networks: Using the power of connections to transform education. Solution Tree Press.

Stanfield, J. (2019a). Lecture 2: Theories of learning part 1 [PowerPoint presentation]. EDU8213, Future of Learning. 8 October. [Accessed 27 October 2019]. Available from: https://blackboard.ncl.ac.uk/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course_id=_91245_1&content_id=_3993101_1

Stanfield, J. (2019b). Lecture:Theories of Learning Part II [PowerPoint presentation]. EDU8213, Future of Learning. 15 October. [Accessed 27 October 2019]. Available from: https://blackboard.ncl.ac.uk/webapps/blackboard/content/listContent.jsp?course_id=_91245_1&content_id=_3993102_1

Tolbert, C. (2019a). My personal learning network. Ed Thoughts [online]. 3 October 2019. [Viewed 27 October 2019]. Available from: https://futureoflearning2019.blogspot.com/2019/10/my-personal-learning-network.html

Tolbert, C. (2019b). Is connectivism as a learning theory bogus? Ed thoughts [online]. 16 October 2019. [Viewed 27 October 2019]. Available from: https://futureoflearning2019.blogspot.com/

Is Connectivism as a Learning Theory Bogus?

Some argue that there are only three "main" learning theories, all listed and explained in the images below:

Image from http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/theories/

Image from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/417005246746609671/visual-search/

However, as shown in the image below, since the introduction of the internet and mass access to technology a theory known as "Connectivism" has made an appearance.

Image from https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tamop412A/2011-0023_Learning_in_digital/0204.scorml

As can be seen this image shows four learning theories and attempts to place them on a timeline showing when each was largely developed, believed, and followed. From Freud, Pavlov, Watson and others came the development of Behaviorism, which was countered in the early 1900s by Cognitivism with main arguments coming from B.F. Skinner. Over time psychologists, researchers, and educators began to accept Constructivism, and last we can see that around the turn of the millennium Connectivism arrived on scene.

It makes sense that as the world of technology advanced and became integrated into our daily, professional and academic lives, that a learning theory based on connecting networks and searching for knowledge rather than memorizing it, was born. So why is Connectivism often put down as a learning theory, discredited and unappreciated? 

Image from https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/learning-network-age/0/steps/24641

On "A Point of Contact", an education and technology blog by Glen Cochrane, this question is addressed in a post from 2011. Cochrane argues that "to interpret actual learning and collect concepts based on observed learning is the role of a learning theory, and these tasks lie outside the capabilities of Connectivism" (2011). It is acknowledged that such a theory was made necessary by the "boom of information technology" and that Connectivism helps learners make sense of the map that is a web of connected information (2011). Ultimately, Cochrane defends the theory as a Theory of Education, just not one of learning.

Another online article titled "Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past?" also argues the point that Connectivism is not a learning theory. It defines developmental theories as theories that "may attempt to take strides towards becoming an established formal theory over time...are fertile testing grounds for ideas, which, in turn, may lead to empirical research that can then validate – or disprove – formal hypotheses posited within the framework of the scientific method" (Kop & Hill, 2008). The authors also reference Siemens in their article noting that learning theories often result in practical changes to how teachers teach and how curriculum is designed (2008), which it subtly argues Connectivism does not do or perhaps does not yet do.

After looking at these two sources, it seems like a commonality is the recognition of technological evolution and a need for a theory to address it, however the general consensus is that perhaps Connectivism is simply still too new to have the clout needed to be dubbed a learning theory, or in the argument of Kop & Hill, it doesn't result in a change of teaching or curriculum planning. After our discussion in class I definitely felt that the idea of Connectivism was more abstract than other learning theories, but I think only time will sway the opinions of those who are non-believers. 

References

Cochrane, G. (2011, September 7). A point of contact: Why connectivism is not a learning theory. Retrieved from https://apointofcontact.wordpress.com/2011/09/07/why-connectivism-is-not-a-learning-theory/

Kop, R. & Hill, A. (2008). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past? Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/523/1103

Learning to be Literate - Reading and Thoughts

This week for our seminar session, we were asked to choose a chapter to read from The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences and blog about it. As the list went around the class and finally came to me I jumped at the excitement of seeing Chapter 30 "Learning to be Literate". During my undergraduate studies I became quite passionate about literacy, working hard in my literacy courses, becoming a teaching assistant for a Literacy Development course. Working under my mentor professor, who became like an idol to me, was a dream and my passion for reading and writing (what I understood literacy to be) was a natural connection to my own personal interests in the subjects. Little did I know, my time working for my mentor professor would change my perspectives on literacy quite drastically, and would spur on a research project of my own in rural Mexico. While my mentor's literacy research interests lie in what is called "new literacies" my interest in culture and travel intermixed with my research goals and I began to look into "community literacy".

Community literacy is the idea that while an individual may not know how to read and/or write, there are still numerous ways he or she is literate--texts that are not written. I documented many "texts" and literacies while living in a small rancho outside Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico during two summer internships. One idea that was prevalent among the men of the rancho especially was that they didn't need to know how to read or write, even their names. Looking back genealogically at parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents who also never knew how to read or write didn't limit the family's knowledge on how to farm, how to sell crops, and other "tricks of the trade". Farming was a text, or an umbrella for many texts to fit under, where the families of the rancho were more than literate and I would be considered illiterate. Students I taught in the local primaria knew how to cook, tend children, farm, sell Coca Cola, keep house, etc.; things that didn't require reading or writing, aka traditional literacy skills. So it was with this experience in mind that I chose to read the afore mentioned chapter on "Learning to be Literate", interested to see what take on that word "literate" would be.

Smagorinsky and Mayer start off giving a background on the term "literacy" and it's Latin roots. This definition talks about literacy as specifically being written letters, however they do acknowledge that the first written languages didn't come until approximately 5,500 years after the human brain was fully cognitively developed. I think this is significant to point out because it shows--and the authors recognize--that literacy can come in more than one form. I was pleased to see them acknowledge literacies such as mathematical literacy, digital literacy, and even moral literacy. For the purposes of their article, however, the authors decided to stick with the traditional definition of literacy being directly linked to reading and writing, though they do finish off their introduction by stating that, "[the] ratcheting up of literacy expectations demonstrates that definitions of literacy change across time, as do the standards that should apply to students at different ages of development and schooling" (Smagorinsky and Mayer, 2014, p. 606).

The authors bring to their argument the notion of primary (biological) and secondary (learned) skill sets and categorize literacy as the latter. Traditional literacy is often taught in formal educational settings and is largely a precursor for other academic subjects. While my time studying family and community literacy didn't look at traditional literacy, I think I can agree with Smagorinsky and Mayer in their assessment of literacy, any literacy being a learned skill. Thinking back on those generations of farmers who found no need to read or write because they "just knew" how to farm, I can see that while they may feel they were born knowing how to plow, plant, irrigate, and harvest corn, that simply cannot be true. They were taught, even as small children. Watch the video below to see how preschool students are taught emotional literacy.

The better portion of this chapter from The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences looks at research to do with how students learn to read and write. These studies include topics such as reading fluency (recognizing phonemes, decoding words, and assessing word meaning), reading comprehension (engaging prior knowledge, prose structures, inferencing), and writing. Setting aside my time teaching and researching in Mexico, I have also spent the last three years as a teacher in the United States and I can attest to the importance of teaching these skills to make better readers and writers; especially when literacy rates in schools are used to measure things like the number of prison beds in the future (that's real folks #stateofUtah).

I wis this article (and more) would focus on being "literate" in a broader sense, not disregarding so many of the things we learn at home or from our communities before or during our formative schooling years. That's not to say I don't think reading and writing are imperative in today's world. I am an avid reader and I love to write, I tried to instill that same love in my former students, but I also tried to encourage them in their hobbies and interests, knowing that it too was a literacy in a unique and different medium. I feel like it is a careful thing to try and balance, the importance of reading and the importance of acknowledging that there are a variety of ways to be literate in this world, no matter how old you are or where you live.

My Personal Learning Network

Networking. What is it? Why do it? In the article ""Understanding personal learning networks: Their structure, content and the networking skills needed to optimally use them" by Kamakshi Rajogopal, Desirée Joosten-ten Brinke, Jan Van Bruggen, and Peter B. Sloep, the authors define networking as "the act of making connections with other[s], with or without the intention of making long-term ties with them". We see this largely in business. However, I can say that as a new, international student at university, networking was one of the first things on my mind. Pressure to find classmates, housemates, neighbors, friends who I could turn to for support academically and socially as I begin this personal journey through grad school. Is that different from how businessmen network? I don't think so, although I didn't realize what I was doing--purposefully networking--until after my first lecture of Future of Learning.

After reading the above mentioned article and realizing the parallels between professional networking and educational networks our group had a discussion about our own Personal Learning Networks (PLNs). Where do we find support, help, answers to questions, information on weather and sports? We each took a few minutes to draw out what we thought our PLN looked like, see mine below:

As I wrote my PLN out, I started with the basic question, who do I ask for help? Friends, family, teachers/professors, etc. Additionally, the class had been discussing the impact of technology on our PLNs. I started adding Google, phone apps, websites, television and Netflix. Upon reflection I realized that even when I am asking my mother for help with something, I am using technology--as smartphone--to text or call her. We were asked to come up with a percentage of how much of our PLN is online vs. offline, and I can say my percentage of online learning is massive. I'd say 80-85%. While this was the case with most of us in class, there was a point brought up that even when we find information online or via technology, often we still ask friends or family for their opinions, for validation. Is that part of learning, I wonder? Opposite that, we discussed how often we've asked a person in our lives a question and received answers like, "Go do it yourself," or "Why don't you just Google it?"

One thing we didn't discuss in much detail is how our life experiences shape our learning and should be, in my opinion, heavily included in our PLNs. My life wouldn't be the same if I hadn't lived and taught in Mexico, where I experienced a huge learning curve in terms of language and culture. Work experience shapes our knowledge as well, yet no one brought it up as the discussion went on. It is only now looking back at my mapped out PLN that I realize how impactful experience is in my PLN.

Something I would like to strive to do is continue reading and learning from physical books. As a true bibliophile you'd think this would be easy, however during term, much of our reading and assignments are available and completed online. I don't think I will ever lose my love for the smell and feel of a book in my hands. I also want to make a goal to try not to rely exclusively on Siri and Google, but to be "brave" enough to ask friends, family, professors and others questions, even if it is not the most convenient or independent way to solve a problem of query.  I'd like to read more blogs and listen to podcasts, rather than watch YouTube videos on how to DIY, leaving some element of a project for me to figure out myself.

This class discussion was powerful for me. I'd never taken inventory on where I get my information, how I learn. The article we read for class stated about students, "As they are partly supported in their learning by interaction with their peers, an essential life-long learning skill they need to develop, is the ability to find and to connect with relevant others..."  Networking is not just a business skill. I've decided it is a life skill, and it is one I'd like to try to further develop in my life, especially while the world around is becoming more and more technology based.